Compare the short story Flowers for Algernon Essay Example for Free

Compare the short story Flowers for Algernon Essay The differences between Flowers for Algernon as a short story and as a movie represent the differences between the two media. In my essay I am going to show, from the differences between the short story and the movie, the differences between the two media, coming up with the conclusion that the short story is the better medium by which to tell this story. One of the most significant differences between the short story and the movie is the developing of Charlies character in the story. In the book for example, is nothing said about his family, whereas in the movie is told a lot about his childhood and in the end he also sees his mother. When we see Charlie in the movie identifying himself as lonely, he becomes a more described character than he is in the book. This shows the difference that in a short story we have to develop a character ourselves, but in a movie only throughout one picture of a person we already get a description of this character we would never have got in a short story. In the movie we have seen the information about Charlie we immediately get it supported by information about his family. There are also different kinds of pathos in short story and movie. With the identification of Charlie Ms Kinnian and indirectly Algernon with the loneliness in the movie, they identify themselves as sad. This makes the movie much more pathetic than the short story, because in the short story only the identifying between Charlie and Algernon takes place, which is much less pathetic. What also support the pathos in the movie is the whole emotion around the relationship between Charlie and Ms Kinnian. This could represent the fact that a movie has to be more emotional than a short story, so that the people want to see it. But it could also show that someone who is making a movie has to bring in more pathos in his story, because he shows the story omniscient. That means he has not the chance to tell the story in diary-form and so directly out of the brain of the main character which is much more personal. With short story as diary-form you can see everything through the eyes of the diary writer. To compare the roles of the doctors, doing the operation, also brings up a big difference. In the movie there is no Dr. Nemur, who plays a big role in  the short story. In the short story Dr. Nemur represents the scientific world, which is not always human. Dr. Strauss plays the good, personal and human guy, which also cares about Charlies feelings and his psychology. Now in the movie there is only Dr. Strauss, who then has to represent the scientific world but also has to be the good guy. So two flat characters from the short story can be put into one character in the movie. Because Dr. Strauss is representing two characters, he becomes a grotesque person. This happens, because he has to represent a scientific society, which does not have ethics as basis but also has to represent a world of humanity and ethics, which in the short story represent Dr. Nemur. In my opinion the short story is the more successful medium by which to tell the story, because the movie creates you through a lot of emotions one specific opinion about what happens to Charlie. Whereas in the short story you have more chance to create your own opinion about the story, which is a very important thing in stories but also in your life.

Matricaria Chamomilla (Chamomile): A Pharmacognosy Review

Matricaria Chamomilla (Chamomile): A Pharmacognosy Review Abstract Matricaria chamomilla is one of the most ancient and renowned medicinal plant from Asteraceae family. Chamomile is a well-heeled plant of natural stuff having pharmacognostic properties. This plant is natural source of blue oil, prepared by various methods such as hydro-distillation, chromatography techniques, etc. Earlier studies on plant compounds classified have nutritional values and more than one biological activity. Chamomile is thus used in cosmetics, perfumery, in food industry and aromatherapy since thousands of years. It has been suggested as alleviate for numerous diseases. This article briefly reviews the details on chemical constituents of essential oil and plant parts as well as their pharmacological properties, accomplished by QSAR and pharmacophore studies which is an in silico approach that increases the activity of plant by modifying its functional groups. This is an attempt to compile and document information on various aspects of chamomile plant and emphasize its need for research and development. Keywords: Matricaria chamomilla, chemical constituents, pharmacognostic, QSAR Introduction The relationship of plant life and human well-being has been renowned for thousands of years.1,2 Herbs have been vital to both traditional and non-traditional forms of medication dated back to at least 5000 years.3-5The enduring popularity of herbal remedies may be enlightened by the propensity of herbs to graft gradually, typically with minimal toxic side effects. Plants are imperative sources of medication since time immemorial. Studies on natural-products are meant to establish therapeutic values of plants by exploration of existing precise scientific knowledge, conventional uses, and invention of potential chemotherapeutic agents.6 The history of herbal medicine is as old as human civilization. With the promising global concern in adopting and studying customary system of medicine and exploring their potential based on different Medicare systems, the estimation of rich heritage of medicinally active plants is primarily carried out on the basis of morphological, phytochemical, pha rmacological and different techniques such as chromatography, distillation, etc.7 One of the most common herbal plant used for curative purposes is chamomile whose homogeneous tea and herbal mines are primed from dried flowers ofMatricariaspecies.8 Taxonomical classification Kingdom: Plantae, Division: Magnoliophyta (Flowering plant), Class: Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledons), Family: Asteraceae, Genus: Matricaria L., Species: Matricaria chamomilla (German chamomile).9 Morphology of plant Matricaria chamomilla commonly known as German chamomile is one of the most ancient annual herbaceous plant of composite family Asteraceae.10 This composite flower is largely favoured aromatic plant having multi-therapeutic values. Chamomile is highly imperative medicinal herb native to southern and eastern Europe. It is most ancient medicinal plant used in herbal remedies for thousands of years known to mankind. Matricaria Chamomilla is a natural resource of blue oil. Various sections of plant such as aerial parts, root and shoot system contains essential oil that has been recommended for variety of healing ailments and diseases.11 Chamomile is a rich source of natural products. There is an immense demand for chamomile plant world-wide because of its influential medicinal values and pharmacological properties. Chamomile plant has a sweet, verdant, and faintly fruity scent. Its florae are daisy-like flowers, with yellow cores and white petals.12 The color of the Blue oil is due to the terpenoid chamazulene, which has been reported for its anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, and antispasmodic properties.13 Chamazulene is biosynthesized from sesquiterpene Matricine, which is reported to have solid antioxidant activity and antimicrobial pharmacological actions.14,15 Ethnobotanical Profile Chamomile being a constituent of various traditional, unani, and homeopathic medicinal provisions, it has been used greatly in flatulence, colic, hysteria, and intermittent fever as a drug.16-18 Many scientists have quoted from writings of several doctors of ancient times that chamomile was also used in cardiac diseases and in functioning of liver.19-22 The diverse range of essential oil isolation techniques and analytical procedures have been smeared for studying the volatile components of chamomile by several groups.23 Numerous essential oils are currently in use as aromatherapy agents to ease anxiety, pressure, and depression. Standard anxiolytic oils include lavender oil, rose oil, orange oil, bergamot oil, lemon oil, sandalwood oil, rose-scented geranium oil and chamomile (German and Roman).24 This aromatherapy is the use of concentrated essential oils extracted from herbs, flowers, and other plant parts to heal several diseases. Aromatherapy is becoming increasingly more popula r; however there are only a few apparent indications for its use.25 Aromatherapy massage exerts optimistic effects on anxiety, self-esteem and also highly reduces stress and stress responses in adolescents by taking aroma treatments.26, 27 The international demand for chamomile oil has been steadily growing. Chamomile is internally used as tisane for stomach pain, slow digestion, diarrhoea and nausea; more rarely and very efficiently for inflammation of the urinary tract and for aching menstruation. Chamomile is used chiefly as an anti-inflammatory and antiseptic, also as antispasmodic and mildly sudorific.28 The chamomile extracts was found to have the most effective anti-leishmanial activity.29 The other uses of Matricaria chamomilla are in cosmetics, perfumes, food additives, while the external use includes the powder form of drug that can be applied for healing, skin eruptions, and infections.10,30 A number of chemical constituents have been identified in chamomile as secondary metabolites, including terpenoids, flavonoids, phenyl propanoids and many other additional compounds with potential pharmacological action. Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Compounds Plants engender primary and secondary metabolites which encompass a wide range of functions. Plants can produce many different types of secondary metabolites that comprise of compounds having multivariate function, exposed by humans for their beneficial role in a varied array of applications.31 Phytochemicals have been the single most fruitful source of leads for the expansion of new drug entities from the dawn of drug discovery. They cover up a wide array of therapeutic indications with a huge assortment of chemical structures.32 The Phytochemicals isolated from Matricaria chamomilla have been classified into different classes of compounds (see table no. 1). The detailed information for each class of compounds can be accessible from supplementary table no. S1-S10. Alkanes Alkanes are acyclic branched or unbranched hydrocarbons having the general formula CnH2n+2 , and therefore comprises completely of hydrogen atoms and saturated carbon atoms.33 Drugs are increasingly being developed from natural products and several alkane compounds such as hexane have already been reported, offering a very promising approach to identify novel anti-angiogenic and anti-cancer agents.34 A considerable number of alkanes derived from chamomile have been identified mostly as antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory agents. A list of alkanes along with its structure and biological activity has been documented in a table (see supplementary table no. S1). Flavonoids Flavonoids are low molecular weight bioactive compounds of enormous biological importance. Flavonoids are secondary metabolites outlined by flavan nucleus and its carbon framework refers to C6-C8-C6.35 These compounds can be classified as polyphenols or phenolics. Flavonoids can be further grouped into subclasses such as flavones, flavonols, flavanones, chalcones, aurones, isoflavones, anthocyanins, and proanthocyanidins. Flavonoid displays several biological properties like antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antiobesity, cardio protective, and neuroprotective activities.36 A huge number of flavonoid compounds such as rutin, quercetin hesperidin and many others have been reported as drugs that tend to possess anticancer, antioxidant and even senescence effects.37,38 A list of flavonoids along with its structure and biological activity has been listed in a table (see supplementary table no. S2). Terpenoids Terpenoids, encompasses the most abundant and morphologically diverse group of plant secondary metabolites. Terpenoids are more frequently present in plants and around 23,000 compounds have been isolated in all. Terpenoids being a rich reservoir of candidate compounds have been characterized as monoterpenes, diterpenes, hemiterpenes and sesquiterpenes.39 Terpenoid production from plants has various defensive and protective functions that holds potential therapeutic properties such as anticancer (mostly leukemic), analgesic, antioxidant, antimicrobial and others. The terpenoid, eucalyptol which is a fragrant chemical has been propagated as nutraceutical having analgesic, anticancer and anti-inflammatory properties.40,41 A list of terpenoids along with its structure and biological activity has been revealed in a table (see supplementary table no. S3). Coumarins Coumarin, which was isolated in 1820 for the first time is classified as an element of benzopyrone family of compounds.42 Coumarins are the well-known phytochemicals that are comprehensively used as a natural active compound. The synthesis of coumarins and their derivatives have noteworthy significance from organic and medicinal chemists for several years. They have been generally used in food, perfumes, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and as optical brighteners.43 Several coumarins and their derivatives have been reported for its antimicrobial and anticancer effects, some of which act as drugs. Dicumarol, cyclocoumarol, coumarin and its derivatives are used as an anticoagulants.44 A list of coumarins along with its structure and biological activity has been listed out in a table (see supplementary table no. S4). Phenyl propanoids Phenyl propanoids are the varied family of organic compounds synthesized from amino acid phenyl alanine.45 Phenyl propanoids are the plant polyketides that tend to possess multiple biological functions such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-depressant and anticancer.46 Phenyl alanine which is an essential amino acid is sold as nutritional supplement for its reputed analgesic and antidepressant effects.47,48 Phenyl alanine first gets converted to cinnamic acid by deamination which is than followed by hydroxylation and frequent methylation to produce coumaric acid and others with phenyl propane.49 A list of phenyl propanoids along with its structure and biological activity has been recorded in a table (see supplementary table no. S5). Spiroethers Spiroether isomers isolated from chamomile showed antispasmodic and anti-inflammatory activities.50 A list of spiroethers along with its structure and biological activity has been mentioned in a table (see supplementary table no. S6). Fatty acids Fatty acids are carboxylic acids with a long aliphatic hydrocarbon tail produced by hydrolysis of triglycerides. These are either saturated or unsaturated naturally occurring fatty acids. 51 More interestingly, isoamly acetate released from honey bee’s sting act as pheromone.52 Isoamyl acetate is also found to be isolated from wine.53 Fatty acids possesses anticancer, antioxidant and other pharmacological actions which has been depicted in a table (see supplementary table no. S7). Fatty acid esters Fatty acid esters can be obtained by esterification of fatty acids. They are the product of combination of fatty acid with an alcohol.54 Fatty acids acts against microbes, as an analgesic and also as melanogenesis inhibitor. A list of fatty acid esters along with its structure and above mentioned biological activity with its references has been reported in a table(see supplementary table no. S8). Pthalic acid Phthalic acid is an aromatic dicarboxylic acid which is formed by catalytic oxidation of naphthalene directly to phthalic anhydride.55 The significant pharmacological properties of phthalic acid involves anti-androgenic, antimutagenic and anti-leukemic activity. Phthalic acid along with its structure and biological activity has been depicted in a table (see supplementary table no. S9). Fatty alcohol Fatty alcohols are the aliphatic alcohols which are naturally found as waxes produced by plants, bacteria and animals having various biological properties.56 The metabolism of fatty alcohol compounds in fibroblasts is impaired in several inherited humanperoxisomaldisorders, includingadrenoleukodystrophyandSjogren-Larsson syndrome.57 Fatty alcohol along with its structure and biological activity has been documented in a table (see supplementary table no. S10). Catalogue of Bioinformatics and Cheminformatics repositories The large amount of Chamomile phytochemical information is highly discrete and can be easily procurable by a number of web-accessible bioinformatics and cheminformatics databases like PubChem,58,59 Chemspider,60 Human Metabolome Database(HMDB),61 ChemBank,62 NAPRALERT,63 SuperNatural database,64 NPACT65 and many more. PubChem is an open repository for chemical structures and their biological activities, maintained by NCBI, a division of NLM under NIH. PubChem is becoming a valued reserve for drug development fascinating noteworthy interest from researchers in academe and diligence.66 PubChem includes substance information, compound structures, and BioActivity information from three principal databases, Pcsubstance, Pccompound, and PCBioAssay, respectively. Pcsubstance contains descriptions of small molecules, PcBioassay contains biological screening results of substances provided by depositors and Pccompound database contains the unique chemical structures. The aim of PubChem is to make this information easily available.67 Pcsubstance contains about 93 million records, Pccompound contains nearly 33 million unique structures and PCBioAssay contains more than 621,000 BioAssays.68 ChemSpider is a free chemical structure database providing rapid text search and structure search access to more than 28 million structures from hundreds of data sources.69 ChemSpider is a very valued web-based database that facilitates access to various chemical structures, nomenclature, chemical properties and other systematic information. ChemSpider is integrated with RSC (Royal Society of Chemistry).60 The Human Metabolome Database is an opulently annotated resource that is devoted to provide researchers with most recent and comprehensive coverage of human metabolome.70 The latest version of HMDB release is HMDB 3.0 that contains 40278 metabolite entries. The database is intended to contain three kinds of entries: chemical data, clinical data and molecular biology/biochemistry data.61 ChemBank is a public web-based database cheminformatics database established by Broad Institutes Chemical Biology Programand funded by National Cancer Institute’s (NCI) Initiative for Chemical Genetics (ICG). ChemBank, a unique among small molecule database houses all the chemical molecular information such as names and identifier of the compounds, their calculated molecular descriptors as well as human curated biological information.62 NAPRALERT (NAtural PRoduct ALERT), an largest ethnobotanical database on pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, toxicology and phytochemistry of plants. NAPRALERT, a relational database was initiated in 1975 by Norman Fransworth and is housed within the Program for Collaborative Research at College of Pharmacy, UIC. It includes biochemical information of extracts of organism, in vivo, in situ, in vitro in humans and clinical studies.63 SuperNatural database is the first public database containing 3D structures, their conformers, derivatives and analogues. It consists of ~ 50,000 natural compounds from different sources. Natural products compounds are classified based on different classes of compounds.64 NPACT is Naturally Occurring Plant-based Anti-cancer Compound-Activity-Target database. It presently comprises of 1574 compound entries with detailed information on the structure, and activity of compound. This database gathers experimentally validated plant derived natural compounds exhibiting anti-cancerous property, both in vitro and in vivo. It also provides inhibitory values of compounds (IC50, ED50, EC50, GI50), their molecular targets and drug-likeliness.65 Conclusion Chamomile is extensively in use in world market because of its wide and varied appliance in medical science. Moreover, natural substances are preferred more, rather than synthesized one due to its minimal side effects and easy extraction of its compounds. Chamomile is a natural source for plenty of bioactive substances that cure numerous diseases. Cheminformatics, an in silico approach is a way out for ample of problems in field of medicinal chemistry. This avenue can be used in drug discovery processes. In silico has gained a considerable thrust over last few years. Due to increased availability of computational power, in silico simulations have reward over in vitro methods. In silico methods are time and cost effective, tumbling lots of biological confirmations and offers the possibility of replacing some animal tests with suitable insilicomodels. QSAR and Pharmacophore studies can be carried out at primary level to increase the activity of the compounds which further leads to drug discovery processes.

Negative Schizotypy Reflect A Continuously Deficit Psychology Essay

Negative Schizotypy Reflect A Continuously Deficit Psychology Essay The DSM-IV: APA, diagnosiss schizophrenia based on reoccurring symptoms, including hallucinations delusions, disorganised speech, disorganised or catatonic behaviour and negative. One reason for cognitive impairments observed in schizophrenia is the processing of context. Cohen (1999) states context processing is used in general to mean the functioning of mental effort or cognitive control. It is referred to actively holding information to be used to mediate task appropriate behaviour. Buchanan et al (1994) states negative symptoms of schizophrenia are connected with deficits involving executive functioning memory. Further evidence from Dibben, et al (2009) explains executive dysfunction shows difficulty in maintaining contextual information, therefore may be an endophenotype of the schizophrenia spectrum of disorders. Research has found there are certain negative schizotypy traits, associated with schizophrenia. Lenzenweger (2010) defines schizoptypy as an underlying personality construct rather than a set of explicit behaviours, which may indicate a concealed risk of future schizophrenia. Schizotypy traits which parallel symptoms of schizophrenia vary from low to pathological, suggesting schizophrenia as a spectrum disorder. Schizotypal Personality Disorder (SPD) presents as similar symptoms to schizophrenia but are explained as a border line state in DSM-III (APA, 1980) SPD not severe enough to meet the criteria to be diagnosed as schizophrenic. Therefore signifying schizophrenia corresponds to the severe end of the spectrum. Additional support from OFlynn et al (2007) shows individuals with high schizotypy scores are cognitively linked to schizophrenia as part of a schizophrenia spectrum. Furthermore Diforio (2000) found SPD patients exhibit cognitive impairment in numerous areas, such as execu tive functioning, dual task information processing and working memory. These are similar to those seen in schizophrenia, although less severe. Studies by Barch (2004) also found individuals expressing schizotypal characteristics express deficits in attention and working memory. Studying individuals with schizotypy traits or SPD can help towards understanding systems and psychological processes contributing to schizophrenia, without confounding factors such as medication effects intervening, which is problematic when researching schizophrenia. The O-LIFE was developed to focus on traits rather than symptoms. It measures four sub-scales associated with schizotypal traits, all have been recognized to have high internal consistency. These are unusual experiences = 0.89, cognitive disorganisation = 0.87, introvertive anhedonia = 0.82 and impulse nonconformity = 0.77. (Mason et al 1995) Evidence from Burch et al (1998) found O-LIFEs test-retest reliability to be very high. However this investigation just measures introvertive anhedonia commonly referred to as a negative schizotypy trait. Meehl (1962) states Anhedonia is the reduced ability to experience social and physical sources of pleasure, as well as avoidance of intimacy, it is an important characteristic of negative symptoms describing it as one of the most consistent and dramatic behavioural signs of the disease. Additionally high social anhedonia as suggested by Blanchard et al (2000) may indicate schizotypy, relating it to a taxon amongst an undergraduate population. A study by Kwapil (1998) suggests higher scores of social anhedonia have been correlated to a greater probability of being diagnosed with future schizophrenia. This investigates uses the O-LIFE questionnaire to measure scores on the introvertive anhedonia subscale and to observe if higher scorers have difficulty with contextual processing. Haddon et al (2011) claim biconditional discrimination in the form of a contextual processing task may be used to measure the way in which task-setting cues control performance. Participants are required to learn relationships by trial-and-error between random pairs of stimuli and feedback responses. Cohen Servan-Schreiber (1992) propose task-setting cues are essential in resolving conflict which opposing stimulus-response pathways create. A study by Mason et al (1995) examined performance of participants with high and low schizotypy scores, using biconditional discrimination and a control discrimination which did not use task-setting cues. Findings showed those who scored highly on the introvertive anhedonia subscale performed weakly on the biconditional. Therefore Liddle (1987) suggests deficits in bic onditional discrimination are directly related to the introvertive anhedonia schizotypy subscale. Furthermore Burch et al (1998) states high schizotypy scores are related to impairments on cognitive tasks, similar to those with schizophrenia. Looking at previous research this investigation aims to replicate (using a related discrimination procedure) and generalise findings of Haddon et al (2011), also to contribute to developing projects on schizotypy which looks to understand effects of core cognitive deficits on severe mental illness. The investigation hypothesises the high schizotypy group will find completion of biconditional discrimination more difficult than lower groups. Method Design An experimental design was used in this study. The independent variables were the schizotypy groups 1, 2, 3 and 4. The dependent variable was the biconditional discrimination score. Participants 92 undergraduates (75 females and 17 males) participated in return for course credit and were undiagnosed as schizophrenic or taking psychotropic medication. Materials Materials included the O-life (The Oxford and Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences) questionnaire and a contextual processing task. (O-LIFE; Mason 1995) This was chosen as it is a reliable and valid measure that was specifically designed for use with sub-clinical populations. A desktop computer running windows and visual basic was used for displaying the stimuli and recording the participants responses. The contextual processing task programme was designed specifically for the investigation. Procedure Participants were tested individually in a quiet environment. The 160-item O-LIFE questionnaire used for measuring schizotypal characteristics within the normal population was shown on a projector screen and participants had to circle yes or no to the corresponding question on an answer sheet. Participants were allocated to schizotypy groups of 20 based on their introvertive anhedonia score relative to the distribution of this trait in participants of similar age and gender. They carried out a contextual processes task which tested biconditional discrimination. Participants assumed the role of a stockbroker and advised clients on stock profitability. In total of 80 training trials presented the participant with pairs of hypothetical stocks including chemicals and paper or metal and wood. Participants then discriminated on a 9 point scale which pairs of stocks would result in profit (positive outcome) and which would result in losses (negative outcome). Participants were instructed to provide a confidence rating of 1 if certain there would be a loss a rating of 5 if uncertain and a rating of 9 if certain of a profit, feedback was provided on the outcome. All four types of trial (AX, BX, AY, BY) (see fig 2) were presented randomly once within each cycle, 20 trials of each compound in total. Biconditional training AX+ AY- BY+ BX- Fig 2 Table of contingences. Completing the task involves attending to both cues consecutively to predict important events. When processing one cue (X) participants have to consider the context in which it is displayed (A or B). Data Analysis As there were multiple levels of the independent variable a one way between ANOVA was used to test for a difference. This analysis decreases chance of a type 1 error. The dependent variable biconditional discrimination was measured by taking the average difference between profit (AX BY) and loss (AY BX) trials in the final 40 trials of learning. Analysis was carried out this way because as Haddon et al (2011) show the effects between the groups emerge as learning progresses. A single score ranging from -8 and +8 was therefore produced reflecting each participants contextual learning ability. The higher the participants score the more context learning ability they have. As ANOVA only states whether there is an overall significant effect Bonferroni post hoc tests were carried out to find which means were significantly different from each other. Results Levenes test of homogeneity of variance is used to report whether variance is significantly different between groups. We cannot use the ANOVA model if there is a significant difference, although for this study Levenes test of homogeneity of variance was non-significant, (p>0.05) therefore ANOVA data can be interpreted. One way between ANOVA shows an overall significant difference between introvertive anhedonia score and contextual processing. (F (3, 88) = 6.019, p Pairwise comparisons using post hoc test bonferroni showed scores for group 1 were significantly higher than those in group 4 (p0.05). As figure 1 shows a linear association was found. (See figure 1). Figure 1. Mean discrimination score by group (s.e shown as error bars) Discussion The aim of this investigation was to further examine and replicate the findings of Haddon (2011). Findings have provided evidence consistent with this aim and hypothesis that high schizotypy groups have difficulty completing biconditional discrimination compared to lower groups. Specifically participants with higher introvertive anhedonia scores (group 4) displayed more impaired biconditional performance compared with those with low scores (group 1). The connection found between high Introvertive Anhedonia scores and impaired biconditional performance is consistent with Liddles (1987) research linking cognitive dysfunction to negative symptoms of schizophrenia and schizotypy characteristics. However it is essential to note anhedonia is not an exclusive feature of schizophrenia, having also been found in bipolar disorder. These results not only give further support to Haddon et als (2011) findings but also maintains the theory from Cohen and Servan-Schreiber (1992) that high schizotypy individuals, should be impaired on biconditional discrimination tasks since contextual information is essential for resolving conflict between opposing stimulus-response. Futhermore the statistical test ANOVA only shows there is a difference between groups scores, not stating exact cause and effect. Variation within groups could be due to individual differences or other factors that were not controlled (tiredness or mood) could affect concentration. Participants could have found the task uninteresting therefore not engaging fully; also participants different approaches to answering biconditional discrimination task can have an impact upon results. The O-LIFE questionnaire has good test-retest reliability and is useful in studying a nonclinical population. Although O-LIFE is not a diagnostic test for risk of mental illness, testing only personality traits. However there are limitations in the investigation, the sample had a clear gender bias with a larger female to male ratio. Another drawback being a young age bias as it used undergraduate students, although sampling from younger age groups produces groups with comparable distributions of introvertive anhedonia scores. Further research is needed to determine the significance of these results and their implications for the relationship between negative schizotypy traits and context processing. Researchers looking for objective indicators for causes of decline into schizophrenia could use further research using these results. Additionally larger understanding of negative symptoms could motivate research into producing therapies effective for negative symptoms. References Association, A. P. (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (thrid ed.). Washington: Author. Association, A. P. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (fourth ed.). Washington: Author. Barch, D. M., Mitropoulou, V., Harvey, P. D., New, A. S., Silverman, J. M., Siever, L. J. (2004). Context-processing deficits in schizotypal personality disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 556-568. Blanchard, J. J., Gangestad, S. W., Brown, S. A., Horan, W. P. (2000). Hedonic capacity and schizotypy revisited: A taxometric analysis of social anhedonia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109(1), 87-95. Buchanan, R. W., Strauss, M. E., Kirkpatrick, B., Holstein, C., Breier, A., Carpenter, W.T. (1994). Neuropsychological Impairments in Deficit Vs Nondeficit Forms of Schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51(10), 804-811. Burch, G. S. J., Steel, C., Hemsley, D. R. (1998). Oxford-Liverpool Inventory of Feelings and Experiences: Reliability in an experimental population. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37, 107-108. Cohen, J. D., Barch, D. M., Carter, C., Servan-Schreiber, D. (1999). Context-processing deficits in schizophrenia: Converging evidence from three theoretically motivated cognitive tasks. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108(1), 120-133. Cohen, J. D., Servan-Schreiber, D. (1992). Context, Cortex, and Dopamine a Connectionist Approach to Behavior and Biology in Schizophrenia. Psychological Review, 99(1), 45-77. Dibben, C. R. M., Rice, C., Laws, K., McKenna, P. J. (2009). Is executive impairment associated with schizophrenic syndromes? A meta-analysis. Psychological Medicine, 39(3), 381-392. Diforio, D., Walker, E. F., Kestler, L. P. (2000). Executive functions in adolescents with schizotypal personality disorder. Schizophrenia Research, 42(2), 125-134. Haddon, J. E., George, D. N., Grayson, L., McGowan, C., Honey, R. C., Killcross, S. (2011). Impaired conditional task performance in a high schizotypy population: Relation to cognitive deficits. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64(1), 1-9. Kwapil, T. R. (1998). Social anhedonia as a predictor of the development of schizophreniaspectrum disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107(4), 558-565. Lenzenweger, M. F. (2010). Schizotypy and schizophrenia: The view from experimental psychopathology. New York: Guilford Press. Liddle, P. F. (1987). The Symptoms of Chronic-Schizophrenia a Reexamination of the Positive-Negative Dichotomy. British Journal of Psychiatry, 151, 145-151. Mason, O., Claridge, G., Jackson, M. (1995). New scale for the assessment of schizotypy, Personality and Individual Differences 18(1), 7-13. Meehl, P. E. (1962). Schizotaxia, schizotypy, schizophrenia. American Psychologist, 17, 827-838. OFlynn, K., Gruzelier, J., Bergman, A. and Siever, L.J. (2007) The Schizophrenia Spectrum Personality Disorders, in Schizophrenia, Second Edition (eds S. R. Hirsch and D. R. Weinberger), Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford, UK.

A world of work Essay -- essays research papers

A WORLD OF WORK Outsourcing means that companies hand work they used to perform in-house to outside firms. ADVANTAGES: v  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  bring down costs à ¨ lift profits and boost growth v  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  specialisation Due to the advance in technology products have become more complex which made it difficult for one company to do all the work itself. In order to manage the complexity of these products the astute idea of outsourcing represents an ideal solution (e.g. car industry) DISADVANTAGES: v  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  drain of jobs, v  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  higher organisational costs à ¨ overview, Some years ago this phenomenon used to be hailed as a wonder of the new economy. Nowadays the opinion is less exuberant. Same forces of globalisation are blamed for relentless export of jobs from rich to poorer countries (depressing proof for the declining competitiveness in engineering skills) GLOBALISATION A network between businesses all over the world is established in order to make use of the strengths of different technologies and cultures. NEGATIVE ASPECTS: v  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  fierce competition, v  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  anxiety among people, v  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  possibilities of expansion for smaller companies are restricted (monopolies) The movement of work abroad agitates worriers in the West and is a cause of concern among the public. Global business work is farmed out to other companie...

College Eating Disorders: The Pressure To Be Perfect :: Health Fitness

College Eating Disorders: The Pressure To Be Perfect an article by Eric Goodman informs us about the difficulties college women face while attending Miami University and other universities. The article talks about nine women living off campus their second year at Miami University and the problems the women face with eating disorders such as bulimia. All the girls were concerned with losing what's referred to as the freshman 15 the summer after their freshman year. This diet only led to more serious problems their sophomore year. When they moved into a house their sophomore year there wasn't a gram of fat in either shared kitchen except what Ashley bought, the one who ate the best out of the nine women living in the house. She said that if you wanted something with fat in it, such as peanut butter, you would have to buy it and eat it somewhere else other than in the house (Goodman-154-155). Miami University is medium-size and extremely competitive academically. Miami looks and feels like a private university at public university prices. A tradition of academic excellence helps attract a regional student body that is remarkably homogeneous: suburban, conservative, upper middle class and 94.3 percent white. With everyone coming from the same background there is only one way to look, one way to be: ultra slim and ultra toned. Not all Miami women feel this way but a large number do and it’s an ideal shared at similar schools across the country. Also shared at schools across the country is an epidemic of eating disorders (Goodman155). Almost every female undergraduate at Miami whom Eric Goodman interviewed said she knew of someone who had died of an eating disorder. Simple bulimia was so common it wasn’t even worth mentioning. Eating disorders result from individual psychological problems: an unhealthy competition between mother and daughter; low self-esteem; and a need to be perfect in every aspect. Eric Goodman found out though that the more students and experts he interviewed the more he was struck with an inconsistency in logic. How could individual psychological problems produce a national epidemic? He concluded that many young women with a predisposition to eating disorders developed them partially, or even primarily, in response to the pressures of their immediate environment (Goodman 154-155). Julie Campbell-Ruggaard, Ph.D., is a full time member of the Student Counseling Service at Miami University. She estimates that about 20 percent of Miami’s women undergraduates meet official clinical guidelines for eating disorders.

Foreign Aid - Our Obligation to Help the Less Fortunate Essay example -

     Ã‚  Ã‚     What is absolute poverty?   According to Robert McNamara it is "life at the very margin of existence" (Singer 219).   It is a life that, if not ended by early death, causes a kind of misery unseen to those living in the United States.   Compared to the estimated 1.2 billion people, worldwide living in poverty, those of us in developed countries experience a life of luxury.   The things that we take for granted, such as cars, computers, microwaves, and televisions, are extravagant items that most people living in extreme economic poverty will never see. The gap between the affluent and the poverty-stricken is wide, and is getting even wider in many areas of the world. Are we morally obligated to help those less fortunate than ourselves?   Should we merely go about our daily lives, forgetting about those on the other side of the world who are dying of malnutrition?   These are just a few of the questions that I am about to explore.    The fact that there is absolute poverty in the world cannot be argued. The way we deal with this is the issue at hand. When observing the raw data, including the high infant mortality rates and low life expectancy statistics afflicting impoverished countries, one cannot help but pity these people.   Unfortunately, when it comes down to actually taking action and deciding what to give up, we seem to feel just as much, if not more, pity for ourselves. Many reasons have been given for why we may not be obligated to give up portions of our wealth to help those in need.   Fortunately, in my opinion, many of these arguments can be refuted.    One such argument is that we do not have an obligation to assist the poor because of our own individual property rights.   Robert ... ...oals are attainable if we work together, and as individuals, to make things happen.   If one person feels that it is possible to give more without sacrificing something of equal moral significance, I believe they should make an internal commitment to do so.    Works Cited Brown, Mark Mallock.   "Halving the World's Population is a Realistic Goal."   21 September 2000.   Online: http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/develop/mbrown2.htm. Singer, Peter.   Practical Ethics: Second Edition.   New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993. UNICEF.   "Approaches That Work." The State of the World's Children 1998: Focus on Nutrition.   13 March 2001.   Online: http://www.unicef.org/sowc98/approach.htm. The World Bank Group. "Understanding and Responding to Poverty."   PovertyNet.   16 March 2001.   Online: http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/mission/up3.htm.

Aqa as Philosophy Revision Notes †Reason and Experience Essay

Knowledge and Belief †¢ People can believe things that aren’t true. †¢ For you to know something, it must be true and you must believe it. †¢ Beliefs can be true or false. †¢ Beliefs can accidentally be true, but it isn’t knowledge. Types of Knowledge †¢ Analytic – true by definition – â€Å"Squares have 4 sides†. †¢ Synthetic – not analytic, true or false in the way the word is – â€Å"Ripe tomatoes are red†. †¢ A priori – doesn’t require sense experience to know – â€Å"all bachelors are unmarried†. †¢ A posteriori – can be established through sense experience – â€Å"Snow is white†. All Analytic propositions are known a priori. This doesn’t mean that all a priori propositions are analytic. The main question is â€Å"Are all synthetic propositions a posteriori? † i. e; do we have some knowledge that doesn’t come from sense experience? It is this question that forms the debate between rationalism and empiricism. Rationalism vs. Empiricism †¢ Main dividing questions are: â€Å"What are the sources of knowledge? †, â€Å"How do we acquire it? †, â€Å"How do we get concepts? †. †¢ Rationalism gives an important role to reason. †¢ Empiricism gives an important role to the senses. †¢ Why can’t we use both in acquiring knowledge? Rationalism. †¢ Rationalism claims that we can have synthetic a priori knowledge of the external world. Empiricism denies this. †¢ Rationalists argue that it’s possible for us to know some synthetic propositions about the world outside our own minds, e. g. Maths and morality. Empiricists argue that it is not. †¢ Both rationalists and empiricists accept that we naturally have certain thoughts and feelings inside our minds. Empiricism †¢ An advantage of empiricism is that it allows us to quickly see how we ascertain our knowledge – through our senses by perceiving how the world is, which is a causal process – it requires no mental reasoning. †¢ Empiricists also claim that this is how we acquire our concepts – through our senses. †¢ Once we understand the acquired concepts, we gain analytic knowledge. If we have knowledge that doesn’t come from sense experience – how do we get this knowledge? Rationalists argue that we either gain this knowledge from ‘rational intuition’ or ‘insight’, which allows us to gain this knowledge intellectually, or we just know these truths innately as part of our rational nature. Rationalists may also argue that some, or even all of our concepts are innate of come from rational insight. Do All Ideas Derive From Sense Experience? John Locke – Mind as a ‘Tabula Rasa’ †¢ Locke argues that all ideas derive from sense experience. †¢ He says that the mind at birth is a ‘tabula rasa’ – a blank slate that gets filled up with ideas from the senses. †¢ He refutes the claim of ‘innate ideas’. †¢ Ideas can either be part of a proposition: â€Å"He had the idea that it would be fun to take the day off†; or they can be concepts: â€Å"the idea of yellow†. †¢ Locke says that all our concepts derive from sense experience, and that we have no knowledge prior to sense experience. From Locke’s definition of ‘innate idea’, it follows that everyone with a mind should have the same ideas. However, there is no truth that every person (including people lacking reasoning skills) can assent and agree to. So perhaps, with Locke’s definition, innate ideas are ones that we known as soon as we gain the use of reason. Locke refutes this, saying that we aren’t lacking reason but the knowledge of ideas. For example, a child can’t know that â€Å"4 + 5 = 9† until the child can count up to 9 and has the idea of equality. It is the same thing as knowing that an apple is not a stick – it’s not a development of reason, just the gaining of knowledge of ideas. So therefore, if we must first acquire the concepts involved (through sense experience), the proposition cannot be innate, as no proposition is innate unless the concepts used are innate. Locke argues that the mind has no concepts from birth, and so no truths or concepts can be innate. A Different definition of ‘innate idea’ †¢ Locke’s definition and argument against innate ideas hasn’t been criticized †¢ People who believe in innate ideas don’t accept Locke’s definition †¢ Nativists maintain the view that innate ideas are those which cannot be gained from experience †¢ Nativists tend to argue on how concepts or knowledge can’t be acquired from sense experience †¢ Because we don’t know all concepts from birth, there is some point when we become aware of our concepts †¢ Rationalists argue that experience triggers our awareness of our innate concepts. Experience as a ‘Trigger’ †¢ Children begin to use certain ideas at certain time, and their capacities develop, so why can’t their concepts and knowledge also develop? †¢ Children begin to use certain ideas at certain times †¢ Experience still plays a role – a child must be exposed to the relevant stimuli for the knowledge to emerge, e. g.language. †¢ An idea is innate if it cannot be derived or justified by sense experience. Empiricists on Arguing Concepts John Locke 1. The senses let in ideas 2. These ideas furnish an ‘empty cabinet’ 3. The mind grows familiar with these ideas and they’re lodged in one’s memory 4. The mind then abstracts them, and learns general names for them 5. The mind then has ideas and the language by which it can describe them †¢ However, what does it mean to ‘let in ideas’? †¢ We contrast ideas with sensations, e. g. the sensation of yellow isn’t the same as the concept of yellow †¢ Locke fails to make this distinction David Hume †¢ Hume believes that we are directly aware of ‘perceptions’ †¢ Perceptions are then divided into ‘impressions’ and ‘ideas’ †¢ Both Locke and Hume divide impressions into ‘impressions of sensation’ and ‘impressions of reflection’ †¢ Impressions of sensation come from our sense data and that which we directly perceive †¢ Impressions of reflection derive from the experience of our mind, such as feeling emotions. †¢ Hume says that ideas are ‘faint copies’ of impressions †¢ Therefore, there are ideas of sensation (e. g. the idea of red) and ideas of reflection (e. g. the feeling of sadness, happiness) †¢ Concepts are a type of idea. †¢ Hume’s theory of how we acquire ideas (from copying them from impressions) is a theory of how we acquire concepts) †¢ Locke and Hume both have slightly different versions of how we acquire ideas with which we can think †¢ We start with experiences of the physical world which we get from sense data and experiences of our mind †¢ For Locke, this gives us ideas once we employ our memory to reflect on these experiences †¢ According to Locke, this makes it sound that the remembered experiences are the ideas with which we think †¢ Hume corrects this, and says that we remember and think with the copies of the sensory impressions. Simple and complex concepts †¢ A complex idea is just an idea made up of several different ideas, e. g. a complex idea (a dog) is made up of simple ideas like shape, colour and smell. †¢ This complex idea has a complex impression †¢ We can therefore form complex ideas by abstraction. †¢ As an objection, rationalism raises the question of where do non-empirical ideas come from? †¢ Empiricism is appealing, as we seem to intuitively trust our senses and it easily answers such questions. †¢ However, there are complex ideas that correspond to nothing from our sense experience, e. g. unicorns or God. †¢ So do all ideas derive from sense experience? †¢ Empiricists argue that these complex ideas are made up from simple ideas, which are copies of impressions (e. g. a unicorn is the simple concepts of a horse, a horn, and the colour white, and combined together they give us a unicorn) †¢ Hume and Locke argue that when creating complex ideas, one can only work with the materials that our impressions provide – simple ideas †¢ Complex ideas are no more than altering or abstracting these simple ideas †¢ Therefore, empiricists answer this rationalist objection So Are There Innate Concepts? †¢ What would an empiricists’ analysis of complex concepts like self, causality, substance, etc.be? †¢ These concepts must either be innate, or reached using a priori reasoning †¢ Hume accepts that these complex concepts cannot be derived from experience †¢ However, he states that each of these concepts has no application †¢ These concepts are confused, and we should always use concepts that can be derived from experience †¢ For example, we don’t experience our ‘self’, we experience a changing array of thoughts and feelings. †¢ To come up with the idea of ‘self’, we’ve confused similarity with identity †¢ We do the same with the idea of a physical object †¢ A physical object exists independently of experience, existing in 3d space. †¢ But can experience show us something that exists independently of experience? †¢ If I look at a desk, look away, and then look back again, the desk must have existed when I wasn’t looking at it. †¢ I can’t know that my experience was of the same desk, only that the experiences are similar †¢ When coming up with the concept of a physical object that exists independently of experience, I confuse similarity with identity. †¢ Hume concludes that these concepts are incoherent confusions †¢ This can be objected though †¢ This makes most of our common-sense understand and analysis of the  world incorrect – we know that our concepts are coherent. †¢ Empiricism now seems to challenging to accept, as it makes our concepts ‘illusory’. †¢ The fact that we cannot derive the aforementioned from experience shows that they are innate †¢ Empiricists therefore have a flawed argument – explaining our most abstract concepts is an argument that these concepts are not derived from experience. †¢ Does this therefore mean that they’re innate or arrived at through rational intuition? †¢ One reason to think they’re innate is that children use these concepts before they develop rational intuition. †¢ Rationalists therefore argue that experience is the trigger for the concept Does all knowledge about what exists rest on sense experience? Hume’s Fork †¢ We can have knowledge of two sorts of things: ‘Relations between ideas’, and ‘matters of fact’ †¢ Relations of ideas are propositions like ‘all sons have fathers’ †¢ Hume argue that all a priori knowledge must be analytic, and all knowledge of synthetic propositions must be a posteriori †¢ Anything that is not true by definition (‘matters of fact’) must be learned through the senses †¢ Hume’s ‘matters of fact’ are essentially analytic truths. Matters of Fact †¢ Hume says that the foundation of knowledge of matters of fact is what we experience here and now, or what we can remember †¢ All our knowledge that goes beyond the aforementioned rests on casual inference †¢ For example, if I receive a letter from a friend with a French postcard on it, I’ll believe that my friend is in France. †¢ I know this because I infer from post mark to place †¢ I think that where something is posted causes it to have a postmark from that place. †¢ If the letter was posted by my friend, I believe that he is in France. †¢ I ‘know’ this because I rely on past experiences. †¢ I don’t work out what causes what by thinking about it †¢ It is only our experience of effects and causes that brings us to infer what cause has what effect. †¢ Hume denies that this is ‘proof’ †¢ He says that knowledge of matters of fact, beyond what we’re experience here and now relies on induction and reasoning about probability. Induction and Deduction †¢ The terms relate to a type of argument †¢ Inductive is where the conclusion is not logically entailed by its premises, but supported by them †¢ If the premises are true, the conclusion is likely to be true. †¢ The French letter example is an example of inductive reasoning. †¢ A Deductive argument is an argument whose conclusion is logically entailed by its premises †¢ If the premises are true, the conclusion cannot be false †¢ E. g. Premise 1: Socrates is a man; Premise 2: All men are mortal; Conclusion: Socrates is mortal. Using a priori intuition and demonstration to establish claims of what exists †¢ Rationalists argue against Hume, saying that some claims about what exists can be grounded on a priori intuition. †¢ A priori demonstration, or deduction, is deduction that uses a priori premises †¢ Rational intuition is the view that you can discover the truth of a claim by thinking about it  Descartes †¢ Descartes says that we can establish the existence of the mind, the physical world and God through a priori reasoning. †¢ He attacks sense experience, and how they can deceive us †¢ We can’t tell if we’re being deceived by an evil demon through our senses, as what we are experiencing will be false †¢ We can establish that we think, and therefore we exist, even if our senses do deceive us (as we don’t need our senses to know our mind exists) †¢ This conclusion of thinking and doubting that we exist was gotten to by pure reasoning. †¢ He also establishes that the mind can exist from the body. †¢ Descartes says we don’t know what causes these experiences †¢ It could be an evil demon, God, or the physics world exists exactly how we perceive it. †¢ If it was God, it would mean he was a deceiver as we have a very strong tendency to trust our senses †¢ If it was a demon, God must have created this demon to deceive us, and because God is perfect by definition, this would mean God isn’t a deceiver, and so he can’t have made a demon – so there must be some kind of a real world †¢ Through a priori intuition and reasoning, Descartes says that the external world must exist, because God exists, and he would not deceive us. Conceptual Schemes and Their Philosophical Implications †¢ Humans don’t all have the same concepts †¢ There are two distinguishable elements to our experience: the data of the senses, and how this data’s interpreted by our concepts †¢ By the latter, it implies that different people would impose different conceptual scheme if they have different concepts. †¢ Conceptual relativism claims that because our conceptual scheme affect how people experience and understand reality, people with different conceptual schemes have different realities. An Implication: Conceptual relativism. †¢ We assume people have different ‘realities’ because we can’t translate their to ours †¢ It assumes language ‘constructs’ reality to say reality is relative to our conceptual schemes †¢ It would mean that reality is dependant on language, which isn’t true – we express our realities by language †¢ A proposition in one conceptual scheme can be true without needing to be express in another set of scheme. †¢ This means that there isn’t one set of scheme with how the world works †¢ An objection is that people argue that the relation between experience anc conceptual schemes doesn’t make sense. †¢ Benjamin Whorf says that languages organize our experience of the world †¢ This is like trying to organize a wardrobe itself and not the clothes in it †¢ If a conceptual scheme organizes our experience, then our experience must be comprised of individual experiences †¢ Conceptual scheme all have a set of experiences in common †¢ We can pick out individual experiences like smelling a flower, feeling cold, etc. †¢ Any conceptual scheme with these sorts of experiences will end up similar to our own, despite the concepts one hold and their language, and so translation between two different conceptual schemes will be possible. †¢ There may be small parts that can’t be translated, but this only leads to a very mild form of conceptual relativism. †¢ We can’t necessarily combine conceptual scheme †¢ An example is that we can have more or less colours in our vocabulary, and so can describe things in different ways. †¢ The Greeks thought that there was only one colour – bronze, and that everything else was a different shade of bronze. †¢ This doesn’t mean they saw everything in what we call ‘bronze’, it’s just how they described their experiences. †¢ We can therefore only state things depending on the concepts we have.